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Writing vowels in Devanagari requires that you learn two different ways of depicting the same sounds. In essence, Devanagari’s vowel system consists of two parts: stand-alone vowels and vowel markers. The difference between these is orthographic only, meaning that it only affects how the vowels are written, not how they sound.
Stand-alone vowels appear most commonly when a word in Hindi starts with a vowel. For example, the इ (i) in the word इच्छा (icchā, wish). Stand-alone vowels can also occur in the middle of words when one vowel sound follows immediately after another. For example, the “ā” and “e” sounds in जाएगा (jāegā, [he] will go). The ए (e) comes just after the syllable, जा (jā), which ends in a vowel⏤specifically, the long “ā” sound. The relative positioning of these two vowels requires that you write the second vowel using its stand-alone form.
Vowel markers appear as graphic modifications to consonant symbols. In जाएगा (jāegā), the same example given above, there are two examples of the long “ā” sound represented by a dependent vowel symbol. They are the ा-marker after the consonant ज (ja) resulting in जा (jā) and the same ा-marker after the consonal ग (ga) resulting in गा (gā). Dependent vowels are covered in detail below.
Below is the table of all stand-alone vowel symbols
Vowel pronunciation guide:
अ – the “a” in abrupt
आ – the first “a” in avocado
इ – the “i” in stick
ई – the “ee” in tree
उ – the “oo” in foot
ऊ – the “oe” in shoe
ऋ – the “ri” in trick
ए – the “a” in shape
ऐ – the “y” in shy
ओ – the “ow” in show
औ – the “ou” in mouse
All consonants as written in the table below include an inherent short “a” (अ) vowel. This vowel completes the syllable represented by the consonant symbol. This inherent short “a” can be replaced by any vowel sound in Hindi by adding the appropriate vowel marker to the consonant (see the “Vowel Markers” section below). Note that this inherent अ sound does not have a special symbol due to the fact that it is assumed as part of the consonant symbol itself.
NOTE: Devanagari does not distinguish between upper- and lower-case letters. As such, we use only lower-case letters when transliterating Devanagari into the modified Roman script.
[table “14” not found /]Additional letters in Hindi:
| क़ | ख़ | ग़ | ज़ |
| qa | kha | ga | za |
| ड़ | ढ़ | फ़ | |
| ṛa | ṛha | fa |
Aside from ड़ and ढ़, the letters in this chart appear in loanwords from Arabic and/or Persian.
ड़ and ढ़ are pronounced like ड / ढ combined with the percussive, rolled “r” sound of the letter र. क़, ख़ and ग़ are pronounced somewhat like their “undotted” counterparts, but the pronunciation occurs in the back of the throat. ज़ and फ़ are pronounced like the English “z” and “f” respectively. In speaking (and periodically in writing), these two letters are often interchanged with their “undotted” counterparts ज and फ regardless of their linguistic origin. For example:
- फूल (phūl; flower) is sometimes pronounced फ़ूल (fūl)
- चीज़ (cīz; thing) is sometimes pronounced चीज (cīj)
The table below shows each of Devanagari’s stand-alone vowel symbols in the gray rows while the associated vowel marker appears directly below its respective stand-alone vowel. Note, again, that there is no marker for the short “a” sound, which exists as an inherent vowel in all the consonant symbols. Each of the vowel markers from the table, then, serve to replace this inherent short “a” with the new vowel sound.
| Vowel | अ | आ | इ | ई | उ | ऊ | ऋ |
| Marker | – | ा | ि | ी | ु | ू | ृ |
| Vowel | ए | ऐ | ओ | औ | अः | ||
| Marker | े | ै | ो | ौ | ः |
Here are some examples of a few random consonants modified with each of the vowel markers.
| क | का | कि | की | कु | कू | कृ | के | कै | को | कौ |
| ज | जा | जि | जी | जु | जू | जृ | जे | जै | जो | जौ |
| त | ता | ति | ती | तु | तू | तृ | ते | तै | तो | तौ |
| द | दा | दि | दी | दु | दू | दृ | दे | दै | दो | दौ |
| य | या | यि | यी | यु | यू | यृ | ये | यै | यो | यौ |
| र | रा | रि | री | रु | रू | – | रे | रै | रो | रौ |
| ह | हा | हि | ही | हु | हू | हृ | हे | है | हो | हौ |
NOTE 1: Notice the unique forms of र् + उ/ऊ (रु/रू) and ह् + ऋ (हृ).
NOTE 2: The sounds ँ & ः can be combined with all vowels, not just अ (note the change
in the form of ँ with some vowels).
- E.g., हाँ (hāṁ), हैं (haiṁ); दुः (duḥ)
NOTE 3: The : sound only appears in words of Sanskrit origin and does not appear with
the letter ह.
See below how each dependent vowel connects to the letter क
A small mark underneath consonant letters removes their inherent a-vowel, thus turning it into a pure consonant sound. This mark is known as the हलन्त.
| क → क् | त → त् | द → द् | म → म् |
| ka → k | ta → t | da → d | ma → m |
While the letters and markers shown in the charts above account for much of the Devanagari script, you’ll notice that knowing these letters only gets you part way across the finish line when trying to read Hindi. In order to be able to read any Hindi passage put in front of you, you’ll need to know how to read conjunct consonants. Conjunct letters are clusters of two or more consonants with no intervening vowels. There are many many different combinations of consonant clusters that make the prospect of sorting through them all seem nearly impossible. The process is, however, quite intuitive and you can start reading most conjuncted letters by keeping a few tips in mind.
See also this helpful resource on conjuncts.
1. हलन्त लगाओ ! Put on a halant!
It is possible to create conjunct letters by simply adding a halant to the vowelless letter and writing it next to the succeeding letter without breaking the overhead line.
द् + ब = द्ब (उद्बोध udbodh)
2. डण्डा हटाओ ! Take out the stick!
Many letters in the Devanagari alphabet have a stick (डण्डा) on the extreme right edge of the shape. In many cases, you can make a “half letter” (i.e., a consonant with no vowel) by simply removing that stick and combining it with the next letter.
ण् + ड = ण्ड (दण्डा daṇḍā)
न् + द = न्द (हिन्दी hindī)
च् + छ = च्छ (अच्छा acchā)
त् + व = त्व (महत्व mahatva)
ब् + द = ब्द (शब्द śabd)
प् + त = प्त (प्राप्त prāpt)
स् + थ = स्थ (स्थान sthān)
3. स्टैक बनाओ ! Make a stack!
In some instances, especially when the first, vowelless letter is ट, ठ, ड, ढ, or ष clusters are written with one consonant on top of the other. In these cases, the full letter (i.e., the one with the vowel) goes on the bottom.
ड् + ग = ड्ग (खड्ग khaḍga)
ट् + ठ = ट्ठ (इकट्ठा ikaṭṭhā)
ष् + ट = ष्ट (दृष्टि dr̥ṣṭi)
ष् + ठ = ष्ठ (प्रतिष्ठा pratiṣṭhā)
Similarly, when placed after द्, some letters—particularly the aspirates ध and भ—are written without their stick at an angle and placed slightly to the lower left of the द्’s rounded edge
द् + ध = द्ध (बुद्धि buddhi)
द् + भ = द्भ (अद्भुत adbhut)
4. पास लाओ ! Bring it close!
A couple of letters—क (ka) and फ (pha)—participate as a first member of a conjunct by simply attaching a shortened version of the small appendage on their right side to the left side of the next letter.
क् + य = क्य (क्या kyā)
फ़् + ल = फ़्ल (फ़्लाट flāṭ)
क् + त = क्त (भक्ति bhakti); note: there is another form of the क्त conjunct: क्त
There are a few more rules that apply to specific letters in the Devanagari alphabet. They are detailed here:
Conjuncts with the letter र
The Devanagari letter र participates somewhat unusually in conjuncts and how it appears depends largely on whether it is the initial letter in a conjunct or a second/subsequent letter.
1. When र comes first
When र is the first element in a conjunct, it transforms into a small hook that appears above the letter it precedes. This can be a bit confusing when readers first encounter it, but it becomes easier to recognize with time.
र् + त = र्त (कर्तव्य kartavya)
र् + द = र्द (उर्दू urdū)
र् + फ़ = र्फ़ (सिर्फ़ sirf)
When the final consonant in a cluster is modified by a vowel that extends the width of the letter (i.e., ा, ी, ो, ौ), the “hook” of the र will go over the top of the stick as far to the right of the syllable as possible.
र् + थी = र्थी (विद्यार्थी vidyārthī)
र् + फ़ी = र्फ़ी (बर्फ़ी barfī)
र् + चा = र्चा (चर्चा carcā)
2. When र comes second
When र is the final element in a conjunct, it often appears as a small hash mark extending out of the lower portion of a letter at an approximately 45 degree angle. The exact appearance of the letter can take a few forms.
When the half-letter has a stick that runs from the top of the letter to the bottom (e.g., क, प, च, ज, ब, भ, etc.), the र extends out of the lower part of that stick.
श् + र = श्र (श्री śrī)
म + र = म्र (उम्र umra)
प् + र = प्र (प्रेम prem, प्रदूषण pradūṣaṇ)
क् + र = क्र (क्रिकेट krikeṭ)
When that stick is not there, it often appears beneath the letter, periodically taking the form of an inverted “v” shape when paired with certain Devanagari letters (e.g., ट, ड).
द् + र = द्र (द्रव्य dravya)
ट् + र = ट्र (ट्रेन ṭren)
Conjuncts with the letter ह
When ह is the first letter in a conjunct, the second letter typically either attaches to the “hook” in the middle of the ह in various ways or appears inside the loop in the center of the ह.
ह् + म = ह्म (ब्राह्मण brāhmaṇ)
ह् + य = ह्य (बाह्य bāhya)
ह् + न = ह्न (चिह्न cihna)
ह् + व = ह्व (आह्वान āhvān)
Special forms with the letter श
The letter श has a few special forms to learn when combined with र, व, and च
श् + र = श्र (श्री śrī)
श् + व = श्व (अश्व aśva)
श् + च = श्च (आश्चर्य āścarya)
It is also possible to see these forms as well:
श् + व = श्व śva
श् + च = श्च śca
Some other forms to learn
Some other conjunct forms are a bit harder to recognize and you simply need to memorize them; two (क्ष and ज्ञ) have already been highlighted above.
क् + ष = क्ष (क्षमा kṣamā)
ज् + ञ = ज्ञ (ज्ञान jñān); note: the conjunct ज्ञ (jña) is often pronounced “gya”
त् + र = त्र (पुत्र putra)
त् + त = त्त (आपत्ति āpatti)
द् + द = द्द (रद्दी raddī)
द् + य = द्य (विद्या vidyā)
द् + म = द्म (पद्म padma)
Conjuncts with multiple letters
It is possible for more than two letters to combine in a single conjuncted syllable. In general, the same rules highlighted above apply here as well. Simply keep adding them together and applying the relevant rules as you go.
न् + द् + र = न्द्र (इन्द्र indra)
स् + त् + र = स्त्र (स्त्री strī)
There are two different types of nasalized sounds that occur in Hindi: nasal consonants and nasalized vowels. There are five nasal consonants in the Hindi alphabet:
ङ | ṅa
ञ | ña
ण | ṇa
न | na
म | ma
The first two (ङ and ञ), however, appear only rarely in Hindi as standalone letters. While the letters themselves do not often appear, their sounds are very common in Hindi and are represented by the small dot that appears above letters. How to pronounce those dots is discussed below:
ं vs. ँ
A single dot without a “half-moon” that appears above a Devanagari letter represents a nasal consonant. The precise sound of that nasal is actually determined by the letter that comes after the dot. You’ll notice that in the chart above, all nasals are placed at the end of a row of consonants. The nasalization dot assimilates to the nasal sound that occurs in the same row as the consonant that comes after the dot. It sounds more complicated than it is. Here are a few examples:
कंघा (kaṅghā) – (masculine noun) comb
The dot occurs before the letter घ (gha), meaning it takes on the nasal sound that appears in घ’s row (i.e., ङ, ṅa).
गंजा (gañjā) – (adjective) bald
The dot occurs before the letter ज (ja), meaning it takes on the nasal sound that appears in ज’s row (i.e., ञ, ña).
घंटा (ghaṇtā) – (masculine noun) bell
The dot occurs before the letter ट (ṭa), meaning it takes on the nasal sound that appears in ट’s row (i.e., ण, ṇa).
संतरा (santarā) – (masculine noun) orange (fruit)
The dot occurs before the letter त (ta), meaning it takes on the nasal sound that appears in त’s row (i.e., न, na).
नींबू (nīmbū) – (masculine noun) lime/lemon
The dot occurs before the letter ब (ba), meaning it takes on the nasal sound that appears in ब’s row (i.e., म, ma).
The dot is often, though not always, interchangeable with the nasal consonant it represents. When the nasal is written instead of the dot, there will be a conjunct.
हिंदी or हिन्दी
आरंभ or आरम्भ
It is not possible to use a dot in place of a nasal in a conjunct of like nasals (e.g., म्म, न्न)
मम्मी; not मंमी
पन्नी; not पंनी
The dot with the half-moon under it will always occur in conjunction with a vowel. Instead of assimilating to the next sound (as is done with the dot), you actually nasalize the vowel itself by vocalizing it through the roof of your mouth/nose.
जाऊँ (jāūṁ) – (verb) (I) should go
हँसी (haṁsī) – (feminine noun) laughter
खाँसी (khāṁsī) – (feminine noun) cough
If there is space restriction on the top of a letter (i.e., due to a flag, hook, etc. from any of the vowel markers used), the “half moon” dot shows up as a simple dot. But it is still a nasalized vowel, and not a half nasal consonant. For example:
हैं (haiṁ) – is (plural)
दोनों (donoṁ) – both
दंत vs. दाँत
दंत (dant) and दाँत (dāṁt) are both words meaning “tooth” but they each utilize a different type of nasalization. In दंत, the dot represents the letter न्. In दाँत, on the other hand, the dot with the half-moon requires the nasalization of the long आ vowel rather than a pronounced nasal consonant.
This transliteration scheme is used when Hindi speakers use Roman script to communicate via text messages, emails, etc. It is extremely irregular—different people will utilize the Roman script differently to represent their Hindi. Below are some common renderings of Devanagari letters in this informal transliteration, but you will certainly encounter variations not represented here.
| अ | आ | इ | ई | उ | ऊ | ऋ |
| a | a / aa | i | i / ee | u | u / oo | ri / r |
| ए | ऐ | ओ | औ | ं / ँ | ः | |
| e / ey | ai | o | au / ou | – / n / m | – | |
| क | ख | ग | घ | ङ | ||
| ka | kha | ga | gha | – | ||
| च | छ | ज | झ | ञ | ||
| cha | cha / chha | ja | jha | – | ||
| ट | ठ | ड | ढ | ण | ||
| ta | tha | da | dha | na | ||
| त | थ | द | ध | न | ||
| ta | tha | da | dha | na | ||
| प | फ | ब | भ | म | ||
| pa | pha | ba | bha | ma | ||
| य | र | ल | व | |||
| ya | ra | la | va | |||
| श | ष | स | ह | |||
| sha | sha | sa | ha | |||
| क्ष | ज्ञ | |||||
| ksha | gya | |||||
| क़ | ख़ | ग़ | ज़ | ड़ | ढ़ | फ़ |
| ka / qa | kha | ga | za | ra / da | dha | fa |
| Hindi | Academic Transliteration | Popular Transliteration |
| यार तू क्या कर रहा है? | yār tū kyā kar rahā hai? | yaar tu kya kar (raha/rahaa) hai? |
| घर में कोई नहीं है । | ghar meṁ koī nahīṁ hai. | ghar (me/mei/mein) koi (nahin/nahi/nai) hai. |
| हाँ जी, मैं कल आ सकती हूँ । | hāṁ jī, maiṁ kal ā saktī hūṁ. | haan ji, main kal aa (sakti/saktee)(hoon/hun/hu). |
| घंटा ले कर जाएगा । | ghaṇṭā le kar jāegā. | ghanta le kar (jaaega/jaega/jayega) |
